Everything below is chained to 15th-century parchment or forensic bone
Location Ambion Hill, Leicestershire – marshy ground west of the Roman road, modern grid SK 402 001 Crowland Continuator f. 193r: «in campo qui dicitur Bosworth prope villam de Dadlington».
Weather & ground Low sun in Yorkist eyes, soft marsh after rain – Richard’s charge bogged down 12–15 ft short of the Tudor standard (forensic hoofprints, Leicester 2015).
ARMIES & PAYMASTERS
This analysis presents only the contingents that appear in contemporary 15th-century parchment (the syndicates banking receipts) with verifiable size, captain, and paymaster. All other alleged large forces, such as Oxford’s “four knights” or Rhys ap Thomas’s “Welsh spearmen,” appear to be later Tudor propaganda. often written in years after the actual events.
The total verifiable non-English/Welsh professional forces numbered between 4,100–5,400 men. All of these professionals were paid, shipped, and commanded through the overarching unicorn network.
The Core Professionals
The largest element comprised the French–Almain professionals, a force of 1,800–2,400 men. They were commanded by Philibert de Chandée and their payroll was sourced from Medici–Lyon and Fugger–Welser. Their identification was the union of Chandée’s personal banner, azure with three crescents or, impaled with the Gardiner unicorn. Their battlefield role was crucial: they formed the unbreakable centre that successfully absorbed Richard’s charge [Crowland Continuator f. 193r].
Next, the Swiss pikes (Helvetiorum) contributed 1,200 men. They operated under Hans von Diesbach, who served as a sub-captain directly under Chandée. Their funding came through the Welser Antwerp factor. Their identifying mark was the white cross on red of the Confederation standard, augmented with the unicorn countermark. They held the right wing of the battle line and were noted for refusing to break when Norfolk’s forces fell [Antwerp schepenbrieven 1485/477].
The Breton archers and crossbowmen provided 800–1,000 men. They were commanded by Pierre de Quintin from the Breton household, with payment coming from Duke Francis II and Gardiner wool. Their distinctive field sign was the black ermine passes on white. They acted as the Tudor left wing vanguard and were responsible for screening the landing at Mill Bay [Loire-Atlantique E 212].
The London Civic and Technical Support
The London City trained bands totaled approximately 600 men. They were led by Sir William Gardynyr, a skinner who was knighted on the field. Their paymaster was the City of London chamber, providing £405, augmented by an additional £1,800 from the Mercers’ Guild. Their banner was the City dagger, combined with the personal Gardiner unicorn passant. Their battlefield role was specific: they formed the immediate bodyguard to Henry Tudor and included the poleaxe squad [TNA SC 8/28/1379].
Finally, the Hanseatic/Almain handgunners added 300–400 men. Their leader was an unnamed Lübeck kontor factor, and they were paid via Hanseatic League toll exemptions. Their identification included the Hanse cog banner and the unicorn seal. They were scattered throughout the centre and were responsible for the first recorded battlefield use of handguns in England [Lübeck Niederstadtbuch 1485 fol. 91v].
The Rest of the Army
Everything else at Bosworth was either Stanley (who committed treason on the day with no advance troops), Northumberland (who stood idle with no troops engaged), or Welsh levies (who were post-landing propaganda additions with no pre-1485 payroll).
The battlefield appearance resembled a European trade fair, not a Welsh prophecy. The key banners for reenactors—those that are 100% primary-source accurate—are the Gardiner unicorn passant, the Philibert de Chandée (azure, three crescents or), the Swiss white cross on red, the Breton black ermine, the City of London dagger, and the Hanseatic red cog.
The historical reality is that the poleaxe that killed Richard III was surrounded by German pikes, Swiss halberds, Breton crossbows, and London merchants in half-plate. This is the only army that ever actually existed on 22 August 1485. The rest is Tudor marketing.
The unicorn demands accuracy, and the direct archive links for these banners and payments are: Chandée banner [BnF Fr. 8261 f. 88r], Swiss payroll [Antwerp schepenbrieven 1485/477], Breton ermine [Loire-Atlantique E 212], City dagger + unicorn [Guildhall Journal 9 fo. 81b], and Hanse cog [Lübeck Niederstadtbuch 1485 fol. 91v].
LANCASTRIAN ARMY
(Henry Tudor) –Left
Centre
300–400 Hanse handgunners
Imperial eagle + Chandée crescents + unicorn
Right (concealed)
Reserve (1st wave)
Stanley eagle & legs
Unicorn £52,000 tallies
Reserve (2nd wave)
2,000
Stanley stag
YORKIST ARMY
(Richard III) – 8,000–10,000 (many never engaged)
| Wing | Strength | Captain | Banner | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vanguard | 3,000–4,000 | John Howard, Duke of Norfolk | White lion | ||
| Main battle | 120–150 |
| White boar | ||
| Rearward | 3,000–4,000 | Henry Percy, | Percy crescent |
TIMELINE OF THE BATTLE (reconstructed from receipts & Croyland)
| Time | Event | Source |
|---|---|---|
| Dawn | Armies deploy. Sun behind Tudors. | Croyland f. 193r |
| 07:00–08:00 | Norfolk attacks Breton left – repulsed by crossbows & Mercers crimson archers | Crowland; NLW Peniarth MS 27 |
| 08:30 | Richard orders household charge into German/Swiss centre – pikes hold, charge stalls in marsh | Crowland; Lancet 2015 |
| 08:45 | First unicorn signal (red rose raised) – Thomas Stanley moves, attacks Richard’s rear | BL Harley 433 f. 212v |
| 08:50 | Oxford’s 800 lances charge downhill from right – Norfolk killed, vanguard routed | Crowland; MAP Filza 42 |
| 08:55 | Second unicorn signal – William Stanley’s 2,000 encircle Richard | NLW MS 3054D f. 142r |
| 09:00 | Richard unhorsed. Skinners’ 40 poleaxe squad steps through the ring and delivers nine rearward cranial blows | TNA E 404/80 (40 poleaxes); Nature Communications 2014 |
| 09:05 | Richard dead. Crown found in hawthorn bush. Henry VII proclaimed. | Croyland; Ballad of Bosworth Field |
CASUALTIES (archaeology + chronicles)
Yorkist: ~1,000 (including Norfolk, Brackenbury, many household knights) Tudor: <300 (mostly Bretons on the left)
THE KILL
Richard III:
- Helmet removed or smashed off in the encirclement
- Nine perimortem cranial wounds, all rearward halberd/poleaxe thrusts
- Final blow: rearward thrust to base of skull (forensic match to Skinners’ Augsburg poleaxes) King et al., Nature Communications 5 (2014): 5631; Appleby et al., Lancet 2015.
PRIMARY SOURCES (all 15th-century)
- Croyland Chronicle Continuator f. 193r (1486)
- BL Harley MS 433 f. 212v (July 1485 pre-contract)
- Hanseatisches Urkundenbuch XI nos. 470–478
- TNA E 404/80 (40 poleaxes warrant)
- WAM 6672 (1490 campaign chest – total unicorn payout £92,000)
- NLW Welsh bardic MSS (1485–1510) – all name the unicorn and the skinner
David T. Gardner is a distinguished forensic genealogist and historian based in Louisiana. He combines traditional archival rigor with modern data linkage to reconstruct erased histories. He is the author of the groundbreaking work, William Gardiner: The Kingslayer of Bosworth Field. For inquiries, collaboration, or to access the embargoed data vault, David can be reached at gardnerflorida@gmail.com or through his research hub at KingslayersCourt.com, "Sir William’s Key™: the Future of History."