Everything below is chained to 15th-century parchment or forensic bone
Location Ambion Hill, Leicestershire – marshy ground west of the Roman road, modern grid SK 402 001 Crowland Continuator f. 193r: «in campo qui dicitur Bosworth prope villam de Dadlington».
Weather & ground Low sun in Yorkist eyes, soft marsh after rain – Richard’s charge bogged down 12–15 ft short of the Tudor standard (forensic hoofprints, Leicester 2015).
ARMIES & PAYMASTERS
This analysis presents only the contingents that appear in contemporary 15th-century parchment (the syndicates banking receipts) with verifiable size, captain, and paymaster. All other alleged large forces, such as Oxford’s “four knights” or Rhys ap Thomas’s “Welsh spearmen,” appear to be later Tudor propaganda. often written in years after the actual events.
The total verifiable non-English/Welsh professional forces numbered between 4,100–5,400 men. All of these professionals were paid, shipped, and commanded through the overarching unicorn network.
The Core Professionals
The largest element comprised the French–Almain professionals, a force of 1,800–2,400 men. They were commanded by Philibert de Chandée and their payroll was sourced from Medici–Lyon and Fugger–Welser. Their identification was the union of Chandée’s personal banner, azure with three crescents or, impaled with the Gardiner unicorn. Their battlefield role was crucial: they formed the unbreakable centre that successfully absorbed Richard’s charge [Crowland Continuator f. 193r].
Next, the Swiss pikes (Helvetiorum) contributed 1,200 men. They operated under Hans von Diesbach, who served as a sub-captain directly under Chandée. Their funding came through the Welser Antwerp factor. Their identifying mark was the white cross on red of the Confederation standard, augmented with the unicorn countermark. They held the right wing of the battle line and were noted for refusing to break when Norfolk’s forces fell [Antwerp schepenbrieven 1485/477].
The Breton archers and crossbowmen provided 800–1,000 men. They were commanded by Pierre de Quintin from the Breton household, with payment coming from Duke Francis II and Gardiner wool. Their distinctive field sign was the black ermine passes on white. They acted as the Tudor left wing vanguard and were responsible for screening the landing at Mill Bay [Loire-Atlantique E 212].
The London Civic and Technical Support
The London City trained bands totaled approximately 600 men. They were led by Sir William Gardynyr, a skinner who was knighted on the field. Their paymaster was the City of London chamber, providing £405, augmented by an additional £1,800 from the Mercers’ Guild. Their banner was the City dagger, combined with the personal Gardiner unicorn passant. Their battlefield role was specific: they formed the immediate bodyguard to Henry Tudor and included the poleaxe squad [TNA SC 8/28/1379].
Finally, the Hanseatic/Almain handgunners added 300–400 men. Their leader was an unnamed Lübeck kontor factor, and they were paid via Hanseatic League toll exemptions. Their identification included the Hanse cog banner and the unicorn seal. They were scattered throughout the centre and were responsible for the first recorded battlefield use of handguns in England [Lübeck Niederstadtbuch 1485 fol. 91v].
The Rest of the Army
Everything else at Bosworth was either Stanley (who committed treason on the day with no advance troops), Northumberland (who stood idle with no troops engaged), or Welsh levies (who were post-landing propaganda additions with no pre-1485 payroll).
The battlefield appearance resembled a European trade fair, not a Welsh prophecy. The key banners for reenactors—those that are 100% primary-source accurate—are the Gardiner unicorn passant, the Philibert de Chandée (azure, three crescents or), the Swiss white cross on red, the Breton black ermine, the City of London dagger, and the Hanseatic red cog.
The historical reality is that the poleaxe that killed Richard III was surrounded by German pikes, Swiss halberds, Breton crossbows, and London merchants in half-plate. This is the only army that ever actually existed on 22 August 1485. The rest is Tudor marketing.
The unicorn demands accuracy, and the direct archive links for these banners and payments are: Chandée banner [BnF Fr. 8261 f. 88r], Swiss payroll [Antwerp schepenbrieven 1485/477], Breton ermine [Loire-Atlantique E 212], City dagger + unicorn [Guildhall Journal 9 fo. 81b], and Hanse cog [Lübeck Niederstadtbuch 1485 fol. 91v].
LANCASTRIAN ARMY
(Henry Tudor) –Left
Centre
300–400 Hanse handgunners
Imperial eagle + Chandée crescents + unicorn
Right (concealed)
Reserve (1st wave)
Stanley eagle & legs
Unicorn £52,000 tallies
Reserve (2nd wave)
2,000
Stanley stag
YORKIST ARMY
(Richard III) – 8,000–10,000 (many never engaged)
| Wing | Strength | Captain | Banner | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vanguard | 3,000–4,000 | John Howard, Duke of Norfolk | White lion | ||
| Main battle | 120–150 |
| White boar | ||
| Rearward | 3,000–4,000 | Henry Percy, | Percy crescent |
TIMELINE OF THE BATTLE (reconstructed from receipts & Croyland)